Sigmund Freud

(1856-1939)

Sigmund Freud continues Descartes tradition of suspicion in that he does not see language as a neutral vehicle. Freud argues that psychoanalysis is directly concerned with language, expression, and formulation of ideas.

Freud's arguments about alienation are remarkably similar to Marx's. Freud claims that the individual is estranged from society and from themselves, especially from their natural impulses. He claims that the individual's instincts are repressed and are precluded from expression. Freud believes that civilization creates this alienation by outlawing instinctual action. In other words, society forbids those things that individuals would do naturally (think sex, incest, rape, murder.....). Language is the agency of this repression / alienation in that it deems some actions unacceptable. As Freud puts it, "A web of narratives that circulate about the individual and about others."

Freud argues that we submit to language by being a member of "society." From this web, he argues, comes our image of ourselves, our desires, our obligations, etc.. Rhetoric is centrally involved in t his presentation of the self, as Freud writes: "concealing and revealing, proving and disproving, tempting and being tempted." We never meet "reality" face to face; we only view reality through the screen of language which brings its own values.

Therefore, languages carry value within them.

Freud then argues that, since none of us can fully live up to the rules established by society, we feel guilt. Freud holds that man lives, fundamentally, in a symbolic universe and within that universe we are constantly presenting ourselves to others. Our intent is the maintenance and preservation of the self. Freud argues that there is a rhetorical structure evident in all our statements as we seek the view that casts us in the best light.

Therefore, all conversation is:

1. revealing or concealing
2. proving (showing why we should believe) or disproving
3. tempting and being tempted (appealing to others--sexual aspect of his theories) via attraction or the charge of personality.

Freud argues that there is a rhetorical structure under all communication. Freud also argues for a dimension, which he calls the unconscious, in all human interaction. He posits that what we do is influenced by our unconscious, or that we are not conscious of the reasons that drive our actions. Thus, rhetoric has, and sometimes is intended to have unconscious effect. Rhetoric is also generated unconsciously. We use and respond to rhetoric based on elements of our own unconscious..

Psychoanalysis is a form of textual criticism (the text under study being the words of the individual being psychoanalyzed). Freud holds that Psychoanalysis is liberating because it is designed to make the person self aware and leads to self illumination.

Freud's importance to our task is primarily two fold:

1. His suspicion of the status quo (or language)
2. The role of the unconscious.