John Locke

The 17th century was an age of revolution and enlightenment. At the forefront of this intellectual revolution was Isaac Newton and John Locke. Among the key contributions of 17th century thought are investigation into the nature of understanding and the use of rhetorical theory to analyze text created by others. Thanks to the printing press, for the first time knowledge was widely available. This, plus advances in transportation lead to a new expansion of epistemes.

John Locke (1632-1704) is considered the foremost English philosopher of "the early period of modern post-Cartesian philosophy." Educated at Westminster school and Christ Church, Locke went on to teach rhetoric, logic, Greek, and moral philosophy. His interest in medicine led him to become the secretary to the Earl of Shaftsbury where he became involved in the Protestant movement. Locke held that religion is a prison which does not allow logical inquiry. As a result, he was exiled to Holland from 1683 to 1689 before being allowed to return to England and a life of private study and public service.

The 1600s were also witness to a breakdown in traditional authority. Enlightenment represents a stand against authority as the common man gains that which had been the birth right of the rich land owner: knowledge and education. As Locke explains, "The only reason freedom is discussed comes through a battle against authority." Thus, for Locke, reason became an enemy of authority. Locke argued that anything legitimate could withstand an inquiry of reason.

Locke holds that all knowledge is experiential. As a result, he advanced the doctrine of empiricism:

1. Locke held that when a child arrives in this world, they are, mentally, entirely blank. Locke called this "tabula rasa" meaning white paper. He argues:
   "Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas; how comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from experience; in that all our knowledge is founded, and from that it ultimately derives itself." ----An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
2. The mind, then, through experience has sense impressions made upon it from the outside. These impressions, which Locke would eventually call "ideas," are organized by the mind.
   A. Experience may furnish the understanding with ideas derived either from sensation or from reflection, "the internal operations of our minds, perceived and reflected on by ourselves."
   B. Supplied with ideas, the mind perceives, by intuition or by reasoning, whether the ideas are agreeable or disagreeable. This agreement and disagreement is what we would term knowledge: "Knowledge then seems to me to be nothing but the perception and connexion and agreement, or disagreement and repugnancy, of any of our ideas. In this alone it consists."

The doctrine of empiricism can be boiled down to its essence: "knowledge is experiential." This was (and still is) a direct challenge to authority (such as religion) because many traditions (such as the Church) use syllogistic logic, which only codifies old knowledge, and is not dialectic. Locke held that the syllogism was the primary tool of authority primarily because it stopped challenges to their authority because the syllogism is the base of authoritative arguments (sacrosanct positions).

Locke had high regard for clarity. He held that authority/power is well served by ambiguity. Ambiguity allows those in power to maintain that power.

Despite this, Locke held that faith and reason are allies. He argues that faith and reason help us to discover the truth of experience. The searcher has to have faith that the route to knowledge they chose can withstand refutation.

Knowledge is never of a thing itself, but of a thing being related to another thing.